Notes on Vaiseshika

In the previous post, we had provided to the updated notes on Nyaya. In this post, we post the notes on Vaiseshika. See, below, for an overview of Vaiseshika. The usual disclaimer applied. This notes is prepared primarily on the basis of the IGNOU Study material on Philosophy- Ethics and certain other materials. We have also referred to the notes given in the course on Nyaya, Mimamsa & Vedanta conducted by Velukkudi Sri U. Ve. Ranganathan Swamy in Velukkudi.tv. These notes are provided here for academic reference for students. No originality, authorship or copyright to the above is being claimed. The Notes can be downloaded from here.

Vaiseshika

I. Introduction

Vaisesika: Basics

Vaisesika was founded by the philosopher and the sage Kanada.

Vaisesika is allied to the Nyaya system and has the same end view, namely, the liberation of the individual self.

Brings all objects of knowledge, the whole world, under the seven categories of substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa), the relation of inherence (samavaya), and non-existence (abhava).

·       Substance (dravya) is the substratum of qualities and activities, but is different from both.

·       Quality (guna) is that which exists in a substance and has itself no quality or activity.

·       Action (karma) is a movement.

·       Particularity (visesa) is the ground of the ultimate differences of things.

·       Inherence is the permanent or eternal relation by which a whole is in its parts; a quality or an action is in a substance; the universal is in the particulars.

·       Non-existence stands for all negative facts.

With regard to God and liberation of the individual soul the Vaisesika theory is substantially the same as that of the Nyaya.

Vaiseshika’s Relation with Nyaya

Nyaya is a system of atomic pluralism and logical realism.

Allied to the Vaisesika system which is regarded as ‘Samanatantra or similar philosophy.

Darshana	Philosophy Areas	Philosophy Areas
Nyaya	Logic	Epistemology
Vaisesika	Metaphysics	Ontology

           

Commonality in Nyaya & Vaisesika

Both agree:

·       Earthly life as full of suffering, as bondage of the soul; liberation is absolute cessation of suffering as the supreme end of life.

·       Bondage is due to ignorance of reality and that liberation is due to right knowledge of reality. Vaisesika exposits eality and Nyaya mostly accepts the Vaisesika metaphysics.

Points of Difference between Nyaya & Vaisesika

Aspects	Vaisesika	Nyaya
Categories	Seven categories	Sixteen categories, including seven from vaisesika
Pramanas	Two- perception & inference	Four- perception, inference, comparison and verbal authority of vedas)
Comparison & verbal authority	Parts of inference	Separate source of knowledge

II. Padarthas/ Categories

Vaiseshika is regarded as conducive to the study of all systems.

Main purpose: deal with the categories and to unfold its atomistic pluralism.

What is a Padartha/ Category?

Padartha literally means the meaning of a word or the object signified by a word.

Padārtha refers to the objects of experience. It the name of all entities in the world. Padartha is an object which can be thought and named.

All knowledge necessarily points to an object of knowledge and is called a padartha.

Seven Padarthas

Originally the Vaisesika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of abhava or negation was added later on.

Though Kanada himself speaks of abhava, yet he does not give it the status of a category to which it was raised only by the later Vaisesikas.

The entire universe is reduced to seven padarthas.  

1.     Substance (dravya), 2 quality (guna), 3 Activity (karma), 4 generality (samanya), 5

2.     particularity (visesa), 6 inherence (samavaya), and 7. non-being (abhava).

Bhava and Abhava

Vaisesika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes:

·       bhava or being and

·       abhava or non-being.

Six categories come under bhava and the seventh is abhava.

III. Explanation of the Seven Categories

A. Dravya/ Substance

What is Dravya?

Dravya or substance is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities inhere and which is the coexistent material cause of the composite things produced from it.

Signifies the self-subsistence, the absolute and independent nature of things.

The category of substance is the substratum of qualities and actions.

The Nine Dravyas

The nine substances are:

1)     Earth (prthivi),

2)     Water (Ap),

3)     Fire (tejas),

4)     Air (vayu),

5)     ether (akasa),

6)     time (kala),

7)     space (dik),

8)     spirit (atman), and

9)     mind (manas).

Description of the Dravyas

Earth, water, fire and air really signify not compound transient objects made out of them, but the ultimate elements, the supersensible eternal part less unique atoms which are individual and infinitesimal.

Earth, water, fire, air and ether are the five gross elements. These and manas are physical.

Soul is spiritual.

Time and space are objective and not subjective forms of experience.

Atoms, minds and souls are infinite in number.

Ether, space, time and soul are all-pervading and eternal. Ether, space and time are one each.

Spiritual Substances

The dravyas include:

·       material, and

·       spiritual substances.

Vaisesika is pluralistic and realistic but not materialistic since it admits spiritual substances.

B. Guna or Quality

Unlike substance, Guna cannot exist independently by itself and possesses no quality or action.

It inheres in a substance and depends for its existence on the substance.

Guna/ Quality is not a constitutive cause of anything.

It is called an independent reality because it can be conceived, thought and named independent of a substance where it inheres.

The qualitiesare therefore called objective entities. They are not necessarily eternal. They include both material and mental qualities.

They are a static and permanent feature of a substance, whole action of a dynamic and transient feature of a substance. A quality, therefore, is different from both substance and action.

Qualities include material and spiritual properties. Smell is the quality of earth; taste of water; color of fire; touch of air; and sound of ether. Cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition are the mental qualities which inhere in the self.

There are 24 Gunas which are as under:

Rūpam–Color Rasaḥ-Taste Gandhaḥ-Smell Sparśaḥ-Touch Saṁkhyā–Count Parimāṇam–Size Pṛthaktvam–Separateness Saṁyogaḥ-Conjunction Vibhāgaḥ-Disjunction Paratvam–Remoteness Aparatvam–Proximity Gurutvam-Weight

Dravatvam–Fluidity Snehaḥ-Viscidity Śabdaḥ-Sound Buddhiḥ-Knowledge Sukham–Pleasure Duḥkham–Pain / Sorrow Icchā–Desire Dveṣaḥ-Dislike / Hatred Prayatnaḥ-Effort Dharmaḥ-Merit Adharmaḥ-Demerit Saṁskāraḥ-Tendency

C. Karma or Action

Like quality, Karma/ Action belongs to and inheres in a substance and cannot exist separately from it.

But while a quality is a static and permanent feature of a substance, an action is a dynamic and transient feature of it.

Unlike a quality, an action is the cause of conjunction and disjunction.

Action is said to be of five kinds:

·       Utkṣepaṇam–Upward Movement

·       Apakṣepaṇam–Downward Movement

·       Ākuñcanam–Contraction

·       Prasāraṇam–Expansion

·       Gamanam–Horizontal Movement

D. Samanya or Generality

The fourth category is samanya or generality.

What is Samanyam?

Samanya is generality.

Generality is class-concept, class-essence or universal. It is the common character of the things which fall under the same class.

Samanyam exists in Dravyam, Guna and Karma.

Basis

·       Similar Cognition of different entities cannot arise without a common attribute amongst them. E.g., The cognitions ‘This is a Black Cow’ and ‘This is a Black Goat’ cannot arise if there did not exist a common attribute –Black Colour –amongst them.

·       We see similar cognition of entities different by attributes, of the form ‘This is a Black Cow’ and ‘This is a White Cow’. These cognitions cannot arise if there did not exist a common ‘Bovineness’ (cow-ness) amongst them.

·       Therefore, the Sāmānyam (Generality) called Bovinenessis inferred to exist.

Laghavam

If it is hypothesised that this Sāmānyam

·       Is different in each entity

·       Is created when an entity is created and destroyed when it is destroyed

then, since countess instances of Bovineness need to be accepted and their creation and destruction too, this hypothesis becomes very cumbersome (complex to comprehend).

Therefore, the Principle of Parsimony (Lāghavam) must be adhered to and only what is most essential should be hypothesised.

Therefore, this Sāmānyam which is inevitably hypothesised as the cause for similar cognition of varied entities, is hypothesised:

·       to be ONE, i.e. a single instance of Bovineness exists in all Cows in this world, and

·       to be ETERNAL, i.e. it is not created or destroyed when individual Cow entities are created or destroyed.

Higher and Lower Generality

The universals reside in substances, qualities and actions. They are of two kinds:

·       higher (Para samanyam) and

·       lower. (apara samanyam)

Higher Generality: The higher generality is that of ‘being’. It includes everything and itself is not included in anything. A universal cannot subsist in another universal; otherwise an individual may be a man, a cow, and a horse at the same time.

Lower Generality: Every other generality is lower because it covers a limited number of things and cannot cover all things.

Substance-ness (Dravyatvam) is present in more objects that Earth-ness (Prithivitvam) and so Substance-ness is called a 'more comprehensive (para) samanyam' while Earth-ness is a 'less comprehensive (apara) samanyam'.

However, when compared to Pot-ness, Earth-ness is present in more objects and so Earth-ness become a Para Samanyamwhile Pot-ness is an AparaSamanyam.

Thus, the classification is relative and Para and Apara Samanyams should be determined by mutual comparison.

E. Visesa or Particularity

What is Visesa?

Visesa  enables us to perceive things as different from one another.

Every individual is a particular, a single and a unique thing different from all others. It has got a unique of its own which constitutes its particularity.

It is opposed to generality. Generality is inclusive; particularly is exclusive. Generality forms the basis of assimilation; particularity forms the basis of discrimination.

It is very important to remember that the composite objects of this world which we generally call ‘particular’ objects are not real particular.

Basis

Since there is no other way to differentiate a Dravyam that has no Components (Avayavas) such as Paramanu, from all other Dravyams, a Viśeṣa was hypothesised to exist in that Dravyam.

Now, there are Dravyams that have no components. Only the Eternal Dravyams.

Any Dravyam that is made up of Components must have been created one day by the joining of those components and will perish one day because of the separation of those components.

Therefore, only that which is Eternal will have no components.

Therefore, it can be said that Viśeṣa exists in all Eternal Dravyams only.

Some Features of Visesa

·       Macro objects have components and so are not eternal. Paramanus (micro objects) do not have components and so are eternal. 

·       Only one entity of this kind exists. It does not have components and so is eternal

·       Infinite number of entities exist. They do not have components and so are eternal

·       Therefore, each Eternal Dravyam possesses a Viśeṣa. Large objects such as Pots, Rivers, Fire and Wind do not.

Does Visesa Reside Only in Substances?

Question - Just as a Viśeṣa was accepted in Paramanu to differentiate it from other Paramanus, should a Viśeṣa also be accepted in the Attribute of a Paramanu to differentiate it from the Attributes of other Paramanus?

Answer – Once the distinction of two Paramanus is established using the Viśeṣas residing in them, the Attributes in those Paramanus can be proven to be distinct just because they reside in distinct Paramanus. One Attribute cannot exist in two distinct Paramanus Therefore, a Viśeṣa need not be accepted in the Attributes of a Paramanu.

How to Differentiate between Viseshas?

Question – We established the distinction between two Paramanus using the Viśeṣas residing in them. How to differentiate the Viśeṣas themselves? Is another Viśeṣa required for that?

Answer – If one Viśeṣa is said to possess another Viśeṣa to differentiate itself from others, then that Viśeṣa would in turn require another Viśeṣa to differentiate itself from others, and so on. This hypothesising without an end would lead to the Dosha called Anavastha (infinite-regress). Therefore, it is hypothesised that a Viśeṣa is known to be distinct from others by itself, naturally. It does not need the help of another to differentiate itself. Thus, a Viśeṣa is said to be Self-Differentiating (Svata: Vyavrtta).

F. Samavaya or Inherence

The sixth category is Samavaya or inseparable relation called ‘inherence.’

It is different conjunction or samyoga which is separable and transient relation and is a quality.

Samavaya is an independent category.

Kanada calls it the relation between cause and effect. Samvaya is one and eternal relationship subsisting between two things inseparably connected.

G. Abhava

The seventh category is Abhava or non-existence. Kanada does not mention it as a separate category. Absence of an object and knowledge of its absence are different.

The first six categories are positive. This is negative. The other categories are regarded as absolute, but this category is relative in its conception.

Non-existence is of four kinds:

·       antecedent nonexistence,

·       subsequent non-existence,

·       mutual non-existence and

·       absolute non-existence.

IV. Vaiseshika on Atoms & Creation

A. Paramanu

What is Paramanu?

According to Vaisesika diversity and not unity is at the root of the universe.

·       Atom is the minutest particle of matter which may not be further divisible. The indivisible, partless and eternal particle of matter is called an atom (paramanu).

·       All physical things are produced by the combination of atoms. Therefore, creation means the combination of atoms in different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combination.

·       The material cause of the universe is neither produced nor destroyed. It is the eternal atoms.

Kinds of Paramanu

The atoms are said to be of four kinds:

1)     earth,

2)     water,

3)     fire and

4)     air.

Ether or akasha is not atomic. It is one and all-pervading and affords the medium for the combinations of the atoms.

Features of Atoms

The atoms differ from one another both in quantity and in quality. Each has a particularity of its own and exists as a separate reality.

During dissolution, they remain inactive.

Motion is imparted to them by the unseen power (adrsta) of merit (dharma) and demerit (adharma) which resides in the individual souls and wants to fructify in the form of enjoyment or suffering.

Atoms are suprasensible. It is indivisible, spherical and imperceptible.

Atoms increase by multiplication and not by mere addition. When motion is imparted to them by the unseen power, they begin to vibrate and immediately change into dyads.

Dyad

A dyad is produced by the combination of two atoms. The atoms are its inherent cause; conjunction is its non-inherent cause; and the Unseen power is its efficient cause.

A dyad (dvyanuka) is minute (anu), short (hrasva) and imperceptible.

C. Atomic Theory

From the standpoint of ancient Indian philosophy, the world including physical nature is a moral stage for the education and emancipation of individual souls. The Vaisesika atomic theory of the world is guided by spiritual outlook of ancient Indian philosophy.

·       The atomic theory of the Vaisesika explains that part of the world which is non-eternal subject to origin and destruction in time. The eternal constituents of the universe, namely, the four kinds of atoms, and the five substances of akasa, space, time, mind, and soul, do not come within the purview of their atomic theory, because these can neither be created nor destroyed.

·       On the other hand, all composite objects, beginning with a dyad or the first compound of only two atoms (dvyanuka) are non-eternal. So the atomic theory explains the order of creation and destruction of these non-eternal objects.

·       All composite objects are constituted by the combination of atoms and destroyed through their separation. The first combination of two atoms is called a dvyanuka or dyad, and a combination of three dyads (dvyanukas) is called a tryanuka or triad.

·       The Tryanuka is also called the trasarenu and it is the minimum perceptible object according to the Vaisesika. The paramanu or atom and the dvyanuka or dyad, being smaller than the tryanuka or triad, cannot be perceived, but are known through inference.

Finite Objects & Four Kinds of Atoms

All the finite objects of the physical world and the physical world itself are composed of the four kinds of atoms in the form of dyads, triads and other larger compounds arise out of these. The world or the universe is a system of physical things and living beings having bodies with senses  and possessing mind, intellect and egoism. All these exist and interact with one another, in time, space and akasa.

Order of the World

Living beings are souls who enjoy or suffer in this world according to their character; wise or ignorant, good or bad, virtuous or vicious.

The order of the world is, on the whole, a moral order in which the life and destiny of all individual selves are governed, not only by the physical laws of time and space, but also by the universal moral law of karma.

In the simplest form this law means ’as you sow, so you reap,’ just as the physical law of causation, in its most abstract form, means that there can be no effect without a cause.

Vaisesika admits the reality of the spiritual substances, souls and God, and also admits the law of karma. The atoms are the material cause of the world of which God, assisted by the Unseen power, is the efficient cause.

The physical world presupposes the moral order. Evolution is due to the Unseen Power consisting of merits and demerits of the individual souls which want to bear fruits as enjoyments or sufferings to be experienced by the souls.

Creation of the World

Keeping in view this moral order of the universe, the Vaisesika explains the process of creation and destruction of the world as follows:

·       The starting-point of the process of creation or destruction is the will of the supreme Lord (Mahesvara) who is the ruler of the whole universe. The Lord conceives the will to create a universe in which individual beings may get their proper share of the experience of pleasure and pain according to their deserts.

·       The world being beginningless (anadi), we cannot speak of a first creation of the world. In truth, every creation is preceded by some order of creation. To create is to destroy an existing order of things and usher in a new order.

·       Hence it is that God’s creative will has reference to the stock of merit and demerit act with souls, endowed with the creative function of adrsta that first sets in motion the atoms acquired by individual souls in a previous life lived in some other world.

·       When God thus wills to create a world, the unseen forces of moral deserts in the eternal individual souls begin to function in the direction of creation and the active life of experiences.

·       And it is the content of air. Out of the combination of air-atoms, in the form of dyads and triads, arises the gross physical element of air, and it exists as an incessantly vibrating medium in the eternal akasa. Then, in a similar way, there is motion in the atoms of water and the creation of the gross element of water which exists in the air and is moved by it.

·       Next, the atoms of earth are set in motion in a similar way and compose the gross element of earth which exists in the vast expanse of the gross elemental water. Then from the atoms of light arises in a similar way, the gross element of light and exists with its luminosity in the gross water.

·       After this and by the mere thought of God, there appears the embryo of a world out of the atoms of light and earth. God animates that great embryo with Brahma, the world-soul, who is endowed with supreme wisdom, detachment and excellence.

·       To Brahma God entrusts the work of creation in its concrete details and with proper adjustment between merit and demerit on the one hand, and happiness and misery on the other.

·       The created world runs its course for many years. But it cannot continue to exist and endure for all time to come. Just as after the stress and strain of the day’s work God allows us rest at night, so after the trials and tribulations of many lives in one created world.

·       God provides a way of escape from suffering for all living beings for some time. This is done by him through the destruction of the world. So the period of creation is followed by a state of destruction.

Destruction of the World

The process of the world’s dissolution is as follows:

·       When in the course of time Brahma, the worldsoul, gives up his body like other souls, there appears in Mahesvara or the supreme Lord a desire to destroy the world.

·       With this, the creative adrsta or unseen moral agency in living beings is counteracted by the corresponding destructive adrsta and ceases to function for the active life of experience. It is in contact with such souls, in which the destructive adrsta begins to operate, that there is motion in the constituent atoms of their body and senses.

·       On account of this motion there is disjunction of the atoms and consequent disintegration of the body and the senses.

·       The body with the senses being thus destroyed, what remain are only the atoms in their isolation. So also, there is motion in the constituent atoms of the elemental earth, and its consequent destruction through the cessation of their conjunction.

·       In this way there is the destruction of the physical elements of earth, water, light and air, one after the other. Thus these four physical elements and all bodies and sense organs are disintegrated and destroyed.

·       What remain are the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, light and air in their isolation, and the eternal substances of akasa, time, apace, minds and souls with their stock of merit, demerit and past impressions.

·       It will be observed here that while in the order of destruction, earth compounds come first, then those of water, light and air in succession, in the order of creation, air compounds come first, water compounds next, and then those of the great earth and light appear in succession.

V. Bondage & Suffering in Vaiseshika

Vaisesika regards bondage as due to ignorance and liberation as due to knowledge.

The soul, due to ignorance, performs actions. Actions lead to merits or demerits. They are due to attachment or aversion and aim at obtaining pleasure or avoiding pain. The merits and demerits of the individual souls make up the unseen moral power, the adrsta.

According to the law of Karma, one has to reap the fruits of actions one has performed whether they are good or bad according to the karmas one performed.

This adrsta, guided by God, imparts motion to the atoms and leads to creation for the sake of enjoyment or suffering of the individual souls.

Liberation is cessation of all life, all consciousness, all bliss, together with all pain and all qualities.

It is qualityless, indeterminate, pure nature of the individual soul as pure substance devoid of all qualities.